By Lejla Bešić
This article will present the ongoing issue of sexual violence against men during conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It will explain brief historical facts followed by the sexual violence issues men and boys encounter, including statistics and how the issues are being tackled.
To understand how the civil wars started in the DRC it is essential to be aware of some historical facts which can explain the ongoing violence and cataclysms.
Hostilities have been consuming the country of the DRC for quite a while now. During the colonial rule of Belgian King Leopold II in the 19th century up to a 32 yearlong dictatorship under Mobutu Sese Seko. However, since 1998 the hostilities have kept going on. In an attempt to cease the hostilities, various DRC parties signed a peace agreement in 2002. However, the violence never came to an end. Especially in the Kivu region which brought about a multitude of armed groups. These groups focus on local, regional and national instability. Between 1998 and 2003, 5.4 million people have been killed, 2.7 million internally displaced and another 430000 living as refugees in neighbouring countries such as Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.[1]
Such hostilities which have been bringing up tension for years affect the civilian population like a cataclysm followed by even more systematic violence. Unfortunately, sexual violence is widely present as well since it can have severe mental and physical effects on its victims. It is a war strategy to frustrate, demoralise the enemy and make them act passive.[2] It can take form of sexual torture such as cutting of genitals, penetration with sharp or dangerous objects; mass rapes by army soldiers; sexual violence victims forced to rape each other or witness others being raped, etc.[3]
Current happenings confirm those atrocities. During the short period between 30th July 2010 and 2nd August 2010, one of the largest mass rapes took place in Kivu’s Walikale territory. 300 women, 55 girls, 23 men and 9 boys have been raped by fighters of a three-armed groups coalition.[4]
Other cases confirming the ongoing sexual violence issues such as sex slaves is the story Eunice Owiny, employed by Makerere University’s Refugee Law Project (RLP), encountered.[5] A victim’s wife reached out to Owiny to help her husband. Lastly, he let his guard down and showed a rectal pad he has to use. The man was taken by rebels and separated from his wife. He was raped by his captors three times a day for three days. During that time, he even witnessed a man die in his prison cell due to the grievous wounds from the rape.[6]
To understand the prevalence of sexual violence in Kivu, data gathered in Goma, the capital of the North Kivu province showed the following conclusions.
Even though women outnumber male victims – sexual violence against men is still prevalent. While women experience more sexual violence during their lifetime, for some men, respectively boys it can start from an early age on as will be seen in the following figures.[7]
Sexual violence is not limited to conflict directly. But the conflict situation in a country, followed by years of violence can have a severe impact on vulnerable persons and on their surroundings like a never-ending vicious cycle. The following figures, 2 and 3[8] show minors’ exposure to sexual violence.
As showed in Figures 2 and 3 it can be determined that boys under the age 18 experienced sexual violence as much as girls the same age. In some instances, even more, while less in others. However, looking at the overall picture, both genders are subjected to sexual violence to the same extent. Nonetheless, the professional help for girls and women is wider institutionalised and accessible rather than the ones for boys and men. Making it another neglected aspect of sexual violence against the male gender.[9]
Due to cultural beliefs, even medical professionals do not acknowledge that men can be raped and therefore do not offer help leaving the victims to deal with their traumas alone. The healthcare professionals even sometimes classify anal rape as torture instead of sexual violence, which is then not included in relevant reports. Thus, decreasing the actual information on sexual violence against men.[10]
Other issues such as cultural stigma viewing the male as the “capable man” who provides for his family can ostracise male victims. It makes them believe that they are a shame to their family as his masculinity got undermined. In which situation their women/wives often experience first-hand at home violence or leave their husbands. [11] It is expected from the men to be able to protect himself and ‘man up’ when dealing with the trauma.[12]
If boys who witnessed sexual violence as in the figures, do not receive the necessary treatment for their traumas it can manifest itself in the person and bring about future consequences. Which means that the traumatic experiences can make the victims act like the perpetrators. Moreover, it decreases their life quality due to effects such as suicidal tendencies, anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. These lead to further complications such as questioning their own gender identity[13], aggressive behaviour in their families or societies and work inability. Overall, if the victims are not treated properly it only leads to further negative effects such as generational traumas and normalisation of sexual violence in their daily lives until the cycle is broken.[14]
The Ugandan legislation has shown to be problematic to Congolese refuges in Uganda. The 2009 Anti-Homosexuality Bill[15] criminalizes homosexuality. Therefore, victims who fall under the Ugandan law often do not report that they have been sexually assaulted as they may be stigmatised with homosexuality. This can lead to imprisonment and even to the death penalty. Of course, the fear of being seen as a homosexual by society prevails too.[16] The consequence thereof results in under reporting which in return explains why less help for male victims exists.
To conclude, sexual violence is being used as a weapon of war[17] in the Kivu region of the DRC. It impacts its victims severely. From mental and physical pain to societal exclusion, stigmatization and up to the development of mental disorders. [18] Some men experience sexual violence under the age of 18 in their close surroundings while others fall victims to fighters and rebels.[19] Nonetheless, the professional response is missing and leaving victims to deal alone with their sufferings.[20] In some countries even the law may not be in favour of the victims. As they may be seen as homosexuals if they have been abused by another man and make themselves criminally liable.[21]
[1] Jason Stearns, ‘North Kivu – The Background to Conflict in North Kivu Province of Eastern Congo’ (2012) Rift Valley Institute <https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/51d3d5f04.pdf> accessed 16.02.2021
[2] Anette Bringedal Houge, ‘Subversive Victims? The (non)Reporting of Sexual Violence against Male Victims during the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina’ (2008) De Gruyter Open <https://content.sciendo.com/configurable/contentpage/journals$002fnor$002f29$002f1$002farticle-p63.xml> accessed 18.02.2021
[3] Miya Cain, ‘Hope in the Shadows: Male Victims of Sexual Assault in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’ (2015) Humanity in Action <https://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledge_detail/hope-in-the-shadows-male-victims-of-sexual-assault-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/> accessed 16.02.2021
[4] United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner and MONUSCO, “Final report of the fact-finding missions of the United Nations Joint Human Rights Office into the mass rapes and other human rights violations committed by a coalition of armed groups along the Kibua-Mpofi axis in Walikale territory, North Kivu, from 30 July to 2 August 2010,” July 2011, p. 13 <http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/CD/BCNUDHRapportViolsMassifsKibuaMpofi_en.pdf> (accessed March 11, 2014).
[5] Will Storr, ‘The Rape of Men: The Darkest Secret of War’ (The Observer, 17.07.2011) <https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/jul/17/the-rape-of-men> accessed 23.02.2021
[6] Ibid
[7] H. Sleg, G. Barker, B. Ruratotoye, T. Shand, ‘Gender Relations, Sexual Violence and the Effects of Conflict on Women and Men in North Kivu, Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Preliminary Results from the International Men and Gender Quality Survey‘ (2012) Sonke Gender Justice Network and Promundo-US
[8] H. Sleg, G. Barker, B. Ruratotoye, T. Shand, ‘Gender Relations, Sexual Violence and the Effects of Conflict on Women and Men in North Kivu, Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Preliminary Results from the International Men and Gender Quality Survey‘ (2012) Sonke Gender Justice Network and Promundo-US <https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/documents/6945.pdf> accessed 16.02.2021
[9] Miya Cain, ‘Hope in the Shadows: Male Victims of Sexual Assault in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’ (2015) Humanity in Action <https://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledge_detail/hope-in-the-shadows-male-victims-of-sexual-assault-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/> accessed 16.02.2021
[10] Sarah Solangon, Preeti Patel, ‘Sexual Violence Against Men in Countries affected by Armed Conflict’ (2012) Conflict Security & Development <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263349802_Sexual_violence_against_men_in_countries_affected_by_armed_conflict> accessed 15.02.2021
[11] Will Storr, ‘The Rape of Men: The Darkest Secret of War’ (The Observer, 17.07.2011) <https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/jul/17/the-rape-of-men> accessed 18.02.2021
[12] Anaïs Broban, RafaelVan den Bergh, Wynne Russell, Guido Benedetti, Séverine Caulwaerts, Philip Owiti, Anthony Reid, Eva de Plecker, ‘Assault and Care Characteristics of Victims of Sexual Violence in Eleven Médecins Sans Frontières Programs in Africa – What about Men and Boys?’ (2020) PLoS ONE 15(8): e0237060. <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237060> accessed 18.02.2021
[13] Anaïs Broban, RafaelVan den Bergh, Wynne Russell, Guido Benedetti, Séverine Caulwaerts, Philip Owiti, Anthony Reid, Eva de Plecker, ‘Assault and Care Characteristics of Victims of Sexual Violence in Eleven Médecins Sans Frontières Programs in Africa – What about Men and Boys?’ (2020) PLoS ONE 15(8): e0237060. <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237060> accessed 18.02.2021
[14] Sarah Solangon, Preeti Patel, ‘Sexual Violence Against Men in Countries affected by Armed Conflict’ (2012) Conflict Security & Development <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263349802_Sexual_violence_against_men_in_countries_affected_by_armed_conflict> accessed 15.02.2021
[15] Anti Homosexuality Bill (2009)
[16] Miya Cain, ‘Hope in the Shadows: Male Victims of Sexual Assault in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’ (2015) Humanity in Action <https://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledge_detail/hope-in-the-shadows-male-victims-of-sexual-assault-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/> accessed 16.02.2021
[17] Anette Bringedal Houge, ‘Subversive Victims? The (non)Reporting of Sexual Violence against Male Victims during the War in Bosnia and Herzegovina’ (2008) De Gruyter Open <https://content.sciendo.com/configurable/contentpage/journals$002fnor$002f29$002f1$002farticle-p63.xml> accessed 18.02.2021
[18] Miya Cain, ‘Hope in the Shadows: Male Victims of Sexual Assault in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’ (2015) Humanity in Action <https://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledge_detail/hope-in-the-shadows-male-victims-of-sexual-assault-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/> accessed 16.02.2021
[19] H. Sleg, G. Barker, B. Ruratotoye, T. Shand, ‘Gender Relations, Sexual Violence and the Effects of Conflict on Women and Men in North Kivu, Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Preliminary Results from the International Men and Gender Quality Survey‘ (2012) Sonke Gender Justice Network and Promundo-US <https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/documents/6945.pdf> accessed 16.02.2021
[20] Miya Cain, ‘Hope in the Shadows: Male Victims of Sexual Assault in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’ (2015) Humanity in Action <https://www.humanityinaction.org/knowledge_detail/hope-in-the-shadows-male-victims-of-sexual-assault-in-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/> accessed 16.02.2021
[21] Anti Homosexual Bill (2009)